英语定语从句教学的“二二九”联动方案
英语定语从句又称形容词性从句，相对于名词性和副词性从句而言，它是最特别、最复杂的一类从句，也是贯穿整个中学阶段的必修英语知识要点。教育部制定的最新《义务教育英语课程标准（2011年版）》在“语言知识分级目标”中将“定语从句”的部分内容列为初中阶段必修的英语“语言知识”，与此同时，与初中英语课程要求相衔接的《普通高中英语课程标准（实验）》中将“定语从句”的全部内容列为高中英语必修的“语言知识”要点，并在附录部分的“语法项目表”中以显著位置分类标注。因此，定语从句是中学英语教学的重点和难点，也是该阶段各级各类英语测试所关注的焦点和考点。英语定语从句的核心要点可归纳为三个层面，即两大特征、两种类型和九个引导词。“两大特征”是它区别于名词性从句和副词性从句的独有的外部结构特征和内在逻辑架构特征；“两种类型”是指定语从句可分为限制性和非限制性两类，是其明示自身功能和地位的内在语义标签和外在句法标记；“九个引导词”将复杂独特的定语从句连接词定性化和定量化，从而保证其内部语法系统运转的规范化和系统化。把握定语从句的核心要点，采用“二二九”三位一体联动教学法是突破英语定语从句难关、夯实英语必备基本功，进而有效提升英语应用能力的整体方案。
一、两大特征
英语定语从句除具备英语复合句中所有从句的两大共性特征（其一，都有引导词且放在从句句首；其二，都用陈述语序）之外，还具有自己的两大独特个性特征：
1.显著的外形结构特征
定语从句具有区别于其它从句的外形结构，即“先行词（被修饰的名词或代词）+引导词+从句的其他部分”。如：He who doesn’t reach the Great Wall is not a true man./Life is a game that we have to play and English is a language that we have to learn。在以上两例中，“he”、“game”和“language”分别是“who”和“that”引导的定语从句所限定的先行词。
2.多维的引导词功能特征
定语从句引导词都具有“三重身份”，即连接主句和从句、代替先行词、在从句中作相应成分（主、宾、表、定、状语等）。如：A smile is a curve that sets everything straight./The struggle where you’re today is developing the strength that you need for tomorrow./I live in an office whose window faces northwest./Mr. Wang is no longer the man that he used to be. 在以上四例中，“that”“where”“that”“whose”“that”等五个引导词均拥有“三重身份”，分别在定语从句中作主语、状语、宾语、定语和表语。此处需要说明的是，虽然同位语从句也具备定语从句的外形结构特征，但其引导词却不具备“三重身份”。如：The fact that he had joined the American nationality surprised everybody./The fact that I knew is a top secret.以上两例中的从句外部结构很相似，但同位语从句中的“that”只有连接主句和从句的“单一身份”。
二、两种类型
英语定语从句按其在句中的性质和功能分为限制性和非限制性两种类型。两者的差异主要体现在以下五个方面：
1.语义差别
限制性定语从句与先行词关系密切，是必需的限定成分，语义必不可少，若被省略，则句意不完整或无意义；非限制性定语从句与先行词关系较离散，多为补充成分，语义可有可无，若被省略，句意不受影响。
2.形式差别
限制性定语从句不能用逗号隔开，而非限制性定语从句需用逗号隔开。如：I was the only person in our city who was invited to attend the international conference./Terry’s father， who is over seventy， still works day and night.
3.功能差别
限制性定语从句只能修饰先行词，而非限制性定语从句既可修饰先行词也可修饰整个主句。如：The letter， which I received the other day， is from Mr. Hunter./Jim made the same mistake again， which made his boss very angry.
4.中文译文差别
限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句中文译文之间存在差别，这源于两者的功能差别。限制性定语从句在翻译成中文时一般要译为先行词的定语，而非限制性定语从句既可译为先行词的定语也可译为与主句并列的分句。因此，上一段两个非限制性定语从句在翻译成中文时可分别译为：前几天我收到的那封信是汉特先生寄的；吉米又犯了相同的错误，这让老板很恼火。 5.引导词差别
限制性定语从句可以使用所有的引导词，在从句中作宾语时可以省略，而非限制性定语从句不能使用“that”引导词，其他引导词在从句中作宾语时也不能省略。如：The academic paper （that/which） I wrote with great efforts has been published in an excellent journal./The academic paper， which I wrote three months ago， has been published.
三、九个引导词
英语定语从句的引导词涵盖关系代词和关系副词两种，用法和属性都比较复杂，但它们在数量上是有限的，在功能上是明确的。其中关系代词共六个，即that， which， who， whom， whose， as；关系副词共三个，即when， where， why。九个引导词的基本功能和特殊用法如下：
1.九个引导词的基本功能
（1）that在代替先行词时既可指人又可指物，在从句中作主语或宾语，作宾语时可省略。如：The boy that/who is standing near the door is my son./The boy （that/whom） you saw just now is my nephew./This is the bike（that/which） I lost two years ago./Math is a subject that/which deals with numbers.（2）which在代替先行词时只能指物，在从句中作主语或宾语，作宾语时可省略（见上例）；which在引导非限制性定语从句时，可代替整个主句，如Jim made the same mistake again， which made his boss very angry.（3）who只能指人，在从句中作主语。如：She is the girl who/that sings best in her school.（4）whom只能指人，在从句中作宾语，可省略。如：The comrade（whom/that） I came with can speak eight foreign languages。（5）whose既可指人又可指物，在从句中作定语。如：I was born in a mountainous village whose tea is well known to China./This is the boy whose parents died when he was quite young.（6）when限定的先行词与时间有关，在从句中作时间状语。如：I’ll never forget the day when （=on the day=on which） I first saw you.（7）where限定的先行词与地点有关，在从句中作地点状语。如：I’ll never forget the place where（=in the place=in which） I first met you.（8）why修饰的先行词与原因有关，在定语从句中作原因状语。如：This is the reason why（=for the reason=for which） I have been struggling.（9）as在引导限制性定语从句时，通常用于固定结构（如：the same…as…，such…as…， as…as…等），在从句中作主语或宾语。如：I want the same shirt as yours.我想要一件跟你的一样的衬衫；Such machines as were bought in our workshop are made in Germany.此时，我们应注意“the same...as…”与“the same…that…”在语义上的区别，前者指“同一类”，后者指“同一个”。如：This is the same book as I bought last time./This is the same book that I bought last time. 此外，as在引导非限制性定语从句时，可代替整个主句。如：As I expected， he got the first place again in the final examination.
2.九个引导词的特殊用法
（1）只用that而不用which的情况。虽然that和which在代替先行词时都能指物，在从句中都可作主语或宾语，作宾语时都可省略，但以下情况只用that引导：第一，先行词是不定代词时，如all， none， one， any， few， little， much， everything， something， anything， nothing等。如：There is nothing that can prevent him from doing it./Everything （that） I do， I do it for you./All that glitters is not gold./If you want something（that） you have never had， you must be willing to do something （that） you have never done.第二，先行词被最高级或序数词修饰时。如：The first place that they visited in Guilin was Elephant Trunk Hill./This is the best film that I have ever seen. 第三，先行词被the only， the very， the last等类似最高级或序数词的词修饰时。如：Mr. Smith is the only foreigner that he knows./You are the very person that I’ve been looking for these years. 第四，先行词既有人又有物时。如：In the date-back tour， we reviewed the persons and things （that） we experienced 20 years ago.（2）只用which而不用that的情况。第一，在引导非限制性定语从句时，只用which（见上文）。第二，当介词与引导词连用，即用于“介词+关系代词”结构时。如：This is the room in which my father lived for 60 years.（3）which与as 引导非限制性定语从句时的区别。两者都可引导非限制性定语从句，且都可以代替整个主句，但也有下述主要区别：第一，语义之别。as引导的从句与主句语义一致，不用于否定结构（因为as有“如同、正如”含义）。which引导的从句语义中性或与主句语义相反，可用于否定结构。如：He made a long speech， as we expected./He made a long speech， which was unexpected/which was not expected./The sun heats the earth， which is very important to us all./Tom drinks a lot every day， which his wife doesn’t like at all. 第二，位置之别：as从句位置可前可后，而which从句只能置于主句之后。如：As is known to all， smoking is harmful to one’s health.= Smoking is harmful to one’s health， as is known to all.（4）由“介词+关系代词”引出的定语从句问题。当关系代词which（指物）和whom（指人）在定语从句中作介词的宾语时，这个介词可留在从句中原来的位置（此时which可用that代替，whom可用who或that代替，在从句中作宾语时可省略），也可移至关系代词之前（此时不能用that代替，也不可省略）。如：Is this the book （which/that） you paid for 6 dollars？=Is this the book for which you paid 6 dollars？/ In the dark street， there wasn’t a single person （whom/who/that） she could turn to for help.=In the dark street， there wasn’t a single person to whom she could turn for help.（5）关系副词引出的定语从句问题。第一，在when， where和why引导的定语从句中，三个关系副词一般都可变成“介词+which”的形式，即when=on/in which， where=in/at which， why=for which。第二，有时定语从句的先行词虽然表时间、地点或原因，但从句句法结构不缺状语、只缺主语或宾语，此时从句引导词不能用when， where或why，而要用that或which。如：I’ll never forget the time （that/which） we spent together 30 years ago./Hangzhou is an attractive place that/which has a beautiful tourist resort named the West Lake./The reason（that/which） he gave is unbelievable. 第三，某些表时间的名词（the time/every time/each time/the moment等）、表地点的名词（the place）、表原因的名词（the reason）或表方式的名词（the way）后的关系副词（从句引导词）可省略。如：By the time （when） he was 13 years old， he had learned advanced mathematics by himself./This is the place（where） I stayed for my first 20 years./That’s the reason（why） he paid frequent visits to you./This is the way （how/in which） they have treated us in the past 10 years.
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